This page is under construction. It will feature important archaeological finds related to the Bible.
Photo of the Brooklyn Papyrus
Egypt 664-332 BCE, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons
This papyrus dates to 1700 BC, just before the time of the Israelite enslavement in Egypt. It contains a list of 95 names, all of whom were Egyptian servants. Many of them are clearly semitic. Some of them even take the feminine form of the 12 tribes. For example, Aqoba (Jacob), and Sekera (Issachar). Included on the list is a woman named Shiphrah.
After Pharaoh told the midwives to kill all the new born Hebrew males, there were two who feared God. “But Shiphrah and Puah had respect for God. They didn’t do what the king of Egypt had told them to do. They let the boys live.” Exodus 1:17
See Unearthing the Bible by Titus Kennedy for more information.
The Admonitions of Ipuwer
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The Admonitions of Ipuwer is a Poem written by an Egyptian. The oldest version we have comes from 1300 BC, but the nature of the writing suggests that it was written much earlier. The Poem laments the presence of foreign rulers in Egypt and the disasters in which Egypt has experienced. It states that the slaves are now wearing the jewelry of the nobles. Additionally, it notes that the land has been stripped bare by hail and fire, the animals have been killed, fruit baring trees have been stripped (by what sounds to be locusts), and the Nile is blood.
Sinaitic Inscriptions
Avaris and the Jews
Senemnhut
Tel El-Yehudiyeh
Photo of the Dream Stele
Chanel Wheeler, CC BY-SA 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
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Rendering of the Dream Stele
Carl Richard Lepsius, Public domain, via Wikimedia CommonsThe Dream Stele
Image of the Semna Stele of Usersatet
Alain Guilleux / Alamy Stock Photo
Semna Stele of Usersatet
“This makes Amenhotep ii (also a non-firstborn) pharaoh of the Exodus. (Interestingly, the third-century b.c.e. Egyptian priest-historian Manetho identifies the Exodus pharaoh by the name “Amenophis”—the later Greek form of Amenhotep.) Amenhotep ii’s reign began with remarkable fury and conquest, with the pharaoh swiftly making a name for himself for his level of sadistic cruelty. Yet this is a pharaoh for whom we know next-to-nothing about the latter part of his reign—save for a warning to his viceroy to be wary of foreigners and magicians (the Semna Stele of Usersatet). That, and a mummified body—if it is really his—covered in peculiar tubercles.” Armstrong Institue
This is a replica of one of the Amarna letters (EA290). This letter was written by the ruler of Jerusalem.
The Amarna letters are a collection of clay letters found in the ancient city of Amarna, in Africa. The city of Amarna was established by Pharaoh Akhenaten in 1346 BC. Akhenaten is a unique pharaoh in that he abandoned all other Egyptian deities, except Aten, the “sun god,” becoming the first Egyptian “monotheist.”
These letters were written from kings and tribal leaders throughout ancient Canaan and Assyria (equating to modern day Israel, Syria, and Lebanon). Many of the letters were written in a desperate plea to seek the pharaoh’s military help in their battle against the invading Apiru (Hapiru). Who were these Apiru? There is a strong case to be made that they were the Hebrews who were taking the Promised Land after the Exodus. Of course, popular scholars refuse to acknowledge this, given their anti-biblical stance. Let’s take a closer look at the reasons why the Apiru where the ancient Hebrews.
Now hold on to your hats, this is a bit of a history lesson. By comparing the written materials from other cultures (e.g. the Assyrians) that provide dates for Israelite and Judean kings, to the information in the Bible, we can firmly come to a date for the building of Solomon’s Temple. That date is 967 BC. The Bible states that Solomon started to build the Temple in the 480th year after the Exodus began. Adding 480 to 967 we get 1447. Because it happened in the 480th year and not after the 480th year, we subtract that year, bringing us to 1446 BC. This date is supported by ancient (non-Biblical) Jewish writings. Given that the Exodus lasted 40 years, that brings us to 1406 when the Israelites started the conquest of the Promised Land. Most people believe that the conquest was quick, but that is not what the Bible implicates. Rather, it took many years and was never fully completed.
Even though the Amarna letters were found in a city founded by Akhenaten in 1346, some of the letters were written to a previous pharaoh who started his reign in 1386 (Amenhotep III). This places the writing of the Amarna letters during the time of the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land. Why is this important? In the Amarna letters, many of the rulers of Canaan wrote to the Pharaoh seeking military assistance in their battle against the Invading Apiru. The Apiru were referred to as a nomadic clan that was bent on taking their land. Oddly, there is no evidence that the Pharaoh sent any military aid, even though Canaan was under Egyptian control at the time. How could the Israelites take such a vast land? In the Amarna letters, we find out that these Apiru were assisted by other clans who were in rebellion against Egyptian Rule. Of course, the Apiru didn’t need assistance, they had the backing of God. As time progressed, we find that the Egyptians lost control of this region. Oddly, we never learn what happened to the Invading Apiru in other writings. Could this simply be because they were eventually called Israelites, who established their presence in the Promised Land?
For more information see the Thutmosis Scarab.
For more information consider reading:
The phenomenal four part series by Dr. Clyde E. Billington in Artifax Magazine.
The article by Doug Petrovich called Amenhotep II and the Historicity of the Exodus Pharoah (Access through the Associates for Biblical Research).
The Article by Christopher Eames called 967 B.C.E.: How the Lynchpin Date for Solomon’s Temple Was Determined at the Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archaeology.
The Amarna Letters by Editor William L. Moran
EA 290 (Translated by William L. Moran)
“Say to the king, my lord: Message of Abdi-Heba, your servant. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord 7 times and 7 times. Here is the deed against the land that Milkilu and Saurdatu did: against the land of the king, my lord, they ordered troops from Gazru, troops from Gimtu, and troops from Qultu. They seized Rubutu. The land of the king deserted to the Hapiru. And now, besides this, a town belonging to Jerusalem, Bit-NIN-URTA, by name, a city of the king, has gone over the the side of the men of Qultu. May the king give heed to Abdi-Heba, your servant, and send archers to restore he land of the king to the king. If there are no archers, the land of the king will desert to the Hapiru. This deed against the land was at the order of Milkilu and at the order of Suardatu, together with Ginti. So may the king provide for his land.”
Some of the Amarna Letters housed in the British Museum.
Photo of the Mt. Ebal Curse Tablet
Photo Courtesy of Dr. Scott Stripling
Mt. Ebal Curse Tablet
Shasu of YHWH
Rendering of the Deir Alla Inscription (AKA the Balaam Inscription)
Disdero, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Photo of the Tel Dan Stele
Album / Alamy Stock Photo
Photo of the Mesha Stele
Zev Radovan / Alamy Stock Photo
The Assyrian empire started to flourish around 1270 BC, living in the area of Mesopotamia, Armenia, and northern Syria with their capital city being Nimrod (Nimrud). Genesis speaks of a mighty hunter named Nimrod who established the cities of Nineveh, Calah, and of course, his namesake Nimrod. There are several Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian Kings mentioned in the Bible. There are even Israelite and Judahite kings mentioned in the Assyrian record.
Shalmaneser III reigned from 859-824 BC. He was the son of Ashurbanipal II, who was the first Assyrian king to press into the land of Israel. On a monument that lists the successes and achievements of Shalmaneser III we find reference to the House of Omri with an Image of King Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser III paying tribute. King Jehu is seen in the second panel. The obelisk or monument was created in 825 BC and is currently on display at the British Museum.
The Bible states…
“The prophet Elisha summoned a man from the company of the prophets and said to him, “Tuck your cloak into your belt, take this flask of olive oil with you and go to Ramoth Glead. When you get there look for Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi. Go to him, get him away from his companions and take him into an inner room. Then take the flask and pour the oil on his head and declare, ‘This is what the LORD says: I anoint you king over Israel.’ the open the door and run; don’t delay!”
2 Kings 9 1-3
Then the prophet poured the oil on Jehu’s head and declared, “this is what the LORD, the God of Israel says: ‘I anoint you king over the LORD’S people Israel. You are to destroy the house of Ahab your master, and I will avenge the blood of my servants the prophets and the blood of all the LORD’s servants shed by Jezebel. The whole house of Ahab will perish.”
2 Kings 6-8
Jehu later killed Jezebel as commanded by God; the same Jezebel who tried to slaughter the prophets of the Lord.
See also the replica of Jezebel’s seal in case two.
Type: Replica Seal of Jezebel Queen of Israel.
Unbeknownst to the owner, and tucked away in their private collection, existed an extremely important royal seal; the seal of Queen Jezebel. It wasn’t until an archaeologist did an extensive study of the seal that the owner’s identity was revealed. This seal is remarkable, because of the thousands found, only 32 belonged to a woman. As with anything in the field of archaeology, there is still debate as to the reading of the seal. Nonetheless, many are convinced this is the seal of Jezebel.
Jezebel was married to King Ahab who ruled over the Northern Kingdom of Israel between 847-853 BC. The Bible does not speak fondly of Jezebel, as she attempted to kill all of the Prophets of the Lord and even had a man killed because Ahab wanted his garden.
The person who replicated this seal filled in a broken piece from the top and added blue to accentuate the different iconography.
Kurhk Monolith
Type: Replica of the Nathan Melek bullae
Around 2019, the bullae of Nathan Melek was found in the City of David excavations. The bullae reads “Belonging to Nathan Melech, Servant of the King.” Who was Nathan Melek? In 2 Kings 23:11 we read “He (King Josiah) removed from the entrance of the temple of the Lord, the horses that the kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun. They were in the court near the room of an official named Nathan Melek. Josiah then burned the chariots dedicated to the sun.”
Berlin Pedestal
LMLK seals in the British Museum
Type: LMLK Hezekiah sealed jar handle
Age: 800-700 BCE
Era: Iron Age
Culture: Israelite
LMLK seals (with LMLK meaning 'of the king') are ancient Hebrew seals stamped on the handles of large storage jars first issued in the reign of King Hezekiah (Late 8 Century BC.) and discovered mostly in and around Jerusalem. Several complete jars were found in situ buried under a destruction layer caused by Sennacherib at Lachish. While none of the original seals have been found, some 2,000 impressions made by at least 21 seal types have been published. The iconography of the two and four-winged symbols are representative of royal symbols whose meaning "was tailored in each kingdom to the local religion and ideology.
Scholars believe that the LMLK jars were developed as a way to gather taxes (grain, oil, wine, etc.) from the cities of Judea. These taxes (stored in these LMLK jars) were used to pay off the Assyrian army who were sent to destroy Judea. The Bible states that Hezekiah was paying tribute to the Assyrian King Sargon; however after Sargon’s death, he decided to rebel. The next king of Assyria, Sennacherib, was very upset and started a military campaign against Judea. We learn that many of the Judean cities were destroyed, but, as the Bible states, Jerusalem was spared. This is confirmed by Sennacherib’s Prism. See information below.
Type: Replica Bullae of Isaiah the Prophet with an enlarged version next to it.
In 2009, archaeologists unearthed a bullae with the name Isaiah on it. It was found only feet away from where a Hezekiah bullae was found (see the bullae or seal impressions in this case for a pressing of the Hezekiah bullae). This is important because Isaiah prophesied and was a close confident of King Hezekiah. Unfortunately the bullae was damaged when they found it. As you can see, the top part was broken. Archaeologists believe that the top portion contained an image of a deer or doe; however, this is very speculative. The other damage was caused by the thumbprint of the person who pressed the seal into the clay (probably Isaiah himself). This thumbprint is on the left side of the bullae and has caused last letters to be distorted. The Middle section contains the name Isaiah. The bottom section contains three clear letters in ancient Hebrew ‘nvy’. The word for prophet is ‘nvya.’ Many archaeologists believe that the thumb of the person caused the last letter (the Herbrew Aleph or English A) to be obscured. Nonetheless, many strongly believe that this bullae reads “Isaiah Prophet”.
Type: LMLK Jar Handle Rosette Style
Age: 800-586BCE
Era: Iron Age
Culture: Judea
Excavated: Israel
LMLK basically means "belonging to the king." These jars were typically used to store products from different regions that were used for taxation or levied products used to pay tribute to foreign rulers. The Rosette seal was started by King Jehoiakim and ended at the time of the Babylonian destruction of Judea in 587/586.
This appears to be a Rosette type 4A.
These impressions were obtained by pressing the material against the actual bullae.
1. Impression that states Gemeryahu son of Shaphan. The bullae that this impression is from comes from the 6th century BC. Gemeryahu is believed to be another way to spell Jeremiah (a common way to spell Judean names in this period). Gemeryahu was the son of Shapan, the Scribe. (Jeremiah: 36:10-12 and 2 Kings 22)
2. Impression that states Belonging to Baruch the Scribe. Baruch was the son of Neriah and became the scribe of the Prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 36:32). He wrote down the first and second editions of Jeremiah's prophecies as they were dictated to him. Baruch remained true to the teachings and ideals of the great prophet, although, like his master, he was at times almost overwhelmed by despondency. Both Baruch and Jeremiah witness the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem of 587-586 BC. Baruch's bullae may even retain his fingerprint. Some scholars believe this bullae is a forgery.
3. Impression that states “Belonging to Jerahmeael”, son of King Azriel. Jerahmael lived in in the 6th century BC (Jeremiah 36:26)
4. Impression that states “Belonging to Seriah”. Seriah was the son of Neriah and brother of Baruch. He lived int eh 6th century BC (Jeremiah 36:32).
5. Impression that states, "Belonging to Jotham." 750-735 BC. Jotham was a king of Juda, and son of Uzziah by Jerusha, daughter of Zadok. Jotham was 25 when he began h is reign, and reigned for 16 years. It is thought that his reign commenced as a coregency with his father, which lasted for 11 years. Because his father Uzziah was afflicted (possibly with leprosy) after he entered the Temple to burn incense, Jotham became governor of the palace and the land at that time, while his father lived in a separate house as a leper. The Gospel of Matthew lists Jotham of Judah in the genealogy of Jesus. He is recorded as having built the Upper Gate of the Temple of Jerusalem. Jotham was a contemporary of the prophets Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, and Micah, and benefited from their advice (1 Kings 15:32-38).
6. Impression that states "Belonging to Ahaz": 735-686 BC. Ahaz was king of Judah, and the son and successor of Jotham. He became king of Judah when he was 20 years old and reigned for 16 years. It is thought that Ahaz was coregent with Jotham from 736/735 BC, and that his sole reign began in 732/731 BC. His reign would have ended in 716/715 BC. The Gospel of Matthew lists Ahaz of Judah in the genealogy of Jesus. He is also mentioned in Isaiah 14:28. (1 Kings 16:1-20)
7. Impression that states "Belonging to Hezekiah:" 715-686 BC. According to the Hebrew Bible, Hezekiah was the son of Ahaz and the 13th king of Judah. He is one of the most prominent kings of Judah and is mentioned in Matthew's genealogy of Jesus. Hezekiah witnessed the destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrian Sargon in 720 BC, and was king of Judah during the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC. He enacted sweeping religious reforms, including a strict mandate for the sole worship of Yahweh and a prohibition on venerating other deities within the Temple in Jerusalem. Isaiah and Micah prophesied during his reign. Hezekiah is mentioned by name on Sennacherib's prism, an ancient (non-Biblical) document that supports the Biblical narrative.
8. Impression stating "Belonging to Manasseh": 697-642 BC. Manasseh was a king of Judah and the only son of Hezekiah with Hephzibah. He became king at the age of 12 and reigned for 55 years (2nd Kings 21:1-18 and 2nd Chronicles 32:33-33:20). He began his reign as a co-regent with his father Hezekiah in 697/696 BC. Manasseh was the first king of Judah who would not have had a direct experience with the Kingdom of Israel, which had been destroyed and scattered by the Assyrians in 720 BC. He re-instituted pagan worship and reversed the religious reforms made by his father Hezekiah; for which he is condemned in several texts. He died in 643 BC after a reign of 55 years.
What are Bullae? To answer this question we must first recognize that there are seals and bullae. A seal is an object that is inscribed on one side with words or pictures. This seal often served as a signature, which would be pressed into clay or wax thus leaving an imprint. These were often affixed to documents or objects. The clay or wax impression are called bullae which are often hardened to aid in preservation.
There are examples of seals (genuine and replicas) in these cases. For example, case two contains a Hyksos seal as well as a seal that has the name of Thutmose III. Many bullae related to Biblical figures have been found in archaeological digs or on the antiquities market. For Example:
1. "Belonging to Ahaz, son of Jotham, King of Judah."
2. "Belonging to Hezekiah, [son of] Ahaz, King of Judah."
3. "Shebnayahu [serven]t of the King."
4. "Isaiah prophet."
5. "[belonging] to Azariah son of Hilqiyahu"
6. "Belonging to Seriah son of Neriah."
7. " Belonging to Yehuchal son of Shelemiyahu son of Shovi."
8. "Belonging to Gedaliah son of Pashhur."
9. "Belonging to Gemeryahu son of Shaphan."
10."Belonging to Matanyahu son of Ho[...]."
11. "Belonging to Hanan sone of Hilkiah."
12. "Belonging to Elishama son of Semachiah."
13. "Belonging to Jerahmeel the king's son." Referencing King Jehoiakim.
14. "Belonging to Pedaiah, son of the king." The king would be Jehoiachin.
15. "Belonging to Hananiah son of Azariah."
16. "Belonging to Gedaliah son of Immer."
17. "Belonging to Shelemiah son of Shema."
18. "Belonging to Malchijah son of the king." The king would be Zedekiah.
19. "Belonging to Gedaliah who is over the house."
20. "Belonging to Jaazaniah servant of the king."
21. Belonging to Nathan Melek, servant of the King."
Some seals have been found. These Seals are from:
1. Jezabel wife of Ahab
2. "Yeho'ezer son of Hosh'ayahu."
The Neo-Assyrian king Senechereb laid siege to Judea, partly due to wanting to expand the empire, but also because King Hezekiah rebelled against him by ending his tribute payment.
Photo by: funkyfood London - Paul Williams / Alamy Stock Photo
Sennacherib boasts of his destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel and several of the fortified cities in the Southern Kingdom of Judea. This is chronicled on the Taylor Prism housed in the British Museum (pictured to the right). Hezekiah, the King of Judea, was reigning from Jerusalem at this time. Concerned about Sennacherib's threats, he sought the Word of the Lord through Isaiah the Prophet. The LORD told Isaiah that Sennacherib would NOT overtake Jerusalem (See Biblical reference below). This is alluded to in Sennacherib's own annals.
He states..."As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled forts and to the countless small villages in their vicinity, and conquered (them) by means of well-stamped (earth-)ramps, and battering-rams brought (thus) near (to the walls) (combined with) the attack by foot soldiers, (using) mines, breeches as well as sapper work. I drove out (of them) 200, 150 people, young and old, male and female, horses, mules, donkeys, camels, big and small cattle beyond counting, and considered (them) booty. Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage. I surrounded him with earthwork in order to molest those who were leaving his city’s gate."
ANET: Page 288
Sennacherib never says he conquered Jerusalem, even after the siege, as confirmed in the Bible.
32 ‘Therefore this is what the Lord says about the king of Assyria: “He will not come to this city nor shoot an arrow there; and he will not come before it with a shield nor heap up an assault ramp against it. 33 By the way that he came, by the same he will return, and he shall not come to this city,”’ declares the Lord. 34 ‘For I will protect this city to save it for My own sake, and for My servant David’s sake.’” 35 Then it happened that night that the angel of the Lord went out and struck 185,000 in the camp of the Assyrians; and when the rest got up early in the morning, behold, all of the 185,000 were dead. 36 So Sennacherib the king of Assyria departed and returned home, and lived at Nineveh.
2 Kings 19:32-36 NASB
ANET : Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition with Supplement. Ed. James B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1969
Peter’s House
Magdala Stone
The Zebedee inscription
This column, located in the town of Capernaum , has an inscription thought to be written around 300 AD. The inscription says, “Alphaeus the son of Zebedee the son of John made this column. May it be for him a blessing. 4th century AD.” Although the date is late, Capernaum was the hometown of the Apostles James and John, whose fathers name was Zebedee.
Peter’s Grave
Photo of mosoleum C in the Vatican Necropolis.
Photo Attribution:
imageBROKER.com / Alamy Stock Photo
Arch of Titus and the Temple of Peace
How was the treasure from the Jewish Temple Used?